Developmental Perspectives: Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky developed his sociocultural theory, stating that “in virtually all cultures, the members of previous generations-parents, teachers, and so on-are largely responsible for helping growing children acquire the accumulated wisdom of their culture” (Ormrod, 313).  His sociocultural theory includes the need for children to interact with others in their environment to foster cognitive development.  While many aspects of Vygotsky’s theory are relevant in the classroom, the ability for children to socialize with other children and adults is essential.  As a teacher, it is my job to manage such appropriate interactions, which in turn leads to the development of language, culture, and complex mental processes (Ormrod, 314-317).

As a third grade teacher, many of my students vary in their degree of language acquisition, ranging from English Language Learners to proficient English speakers.  Vygotsky would agree that language develops through social interactions within a social context.  Therefore, in school, it is very important that teachers embrace cooperative learning, partner work, group discussions, literature circles, and other lessons that incorporate appropriate socialization.  While I do not often see self-talk in my classroom, I see students who will use inner speech to complete a task.  Inner speech is when “children talk to themselves mentally rather than aloud” (Ormrod, 316).  Through both socialization and inner speech, all children develop their language.

In addition to language, children develop a sense of culture from peer and adult interaction.  In school, adults teach students directly about the culture of the school climate, including how to behave, how to treat others respectfully, and specific learning behaviors (active listening, participation, organization, etc.).  Also, “every culture passes along physical and cognitive tools that make daily living more effective and efficient” (Ormrod, 315).  Cognitive tools, including number and alphabet systems, operations, map-reading skills, lead to diverse learning across cultures because of differences in what is learned (Ormrod, 315).  Lastly, important historical events are taught in school that lead to the development of ethnicity and patriotism.  These events are taught in the context of history but can incorporate holidays and traditions.  Although students come to school with many different cultural backgrounds, their experiences in school include the American culture.

Lastly, “complex mental processes emerge out of social activities” (Ormrod, 316).  In other words, as children interact with peers and adults, they begin to internalize learning.  As a teacher, it is my job to best match a student to their current ability level that they can reach successfully with guidance from others, then finally to a level of independence.  This is known as their Zone of Proximal Development (Ormrod, 317).  One beneficial strategy I use in the classroom promote learning at their ZPD is differentiating grouping and partners based on pretest data.  This allows students who need more scaffolding to work in a small group with myself and students who show more readiness will work with peer guidance.  In conclusion, Vygotsky’s theory supports collaborative learning, which is also a very important part of our classroom environment. 

Behavioral Approaches to Learning: Instrumental Conditioning

          Classroom management will always be the most important way a teacher maximizes instructional time, limits time spent addressing behavior problems, and creates a flow of the classroom.  Behavior management is one part of managing the entire classroom to reach these goals.  As a school, within my own classroom, and even on an individualized basis, I utilize instrumental conditioning to keep my students behavior in-check.  Instrumental conditioning is the belief that “humans and nonhuman animals alike tend to behave in ways that bring them desirable consequences or enable them to avoid unpleasant ones” (Ormrod, 48).  More specifically, the behavioral theory linked to behavior management is B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, in which “a response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again” (Ormrod, 50).

           The school that I work in incorporates a program called Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS).  This program clarifies expectations of behavior for multiple areas of the school and offers a reward system for positive behavior at a Tier I level.  The plan must include a tangible reward, which at my school is the YES ticket.  When a student demonstrates one of our three school rules (respect Yourself, Everyone, and the School), they get a YES ticket.  These YES tickets then lead to desirable consequences, including monthly school-wide rewards.  The purpose of the YES ticket is based on Operant Conditioning: to immediately reinforce positive behavior and cause the behavior to more likely occur again (Ormrod, 50, 52).

            Within my own classroom, I utilize instrumental conditioning as part of my classroom management.  I utilize the “Stoplight System,” in which both positive and negative reinforcers are incorporated.  If students consistently behave and remain on a “green light,” then they receive the positive reinforcers.  If a student receives one warning and they are moved to a “yellow light,” then they lose recess.  While Ormrod lists this as an ineffective punishment, I find it to be effective when used rarely and not with students who demonstrate the need for movement breaks.  Ormrod does agree that “in some situations missing recess may be a logical consequence for students who fail to complete their schoolwork during regular class time due to off-task behavior” (Ormrod, 62).  If a student is moved to a “red light,” their recess time is lost and they must complete a reflection sheet on their behavior, which must be signed by a parent and returned the next day.

            Lastly, on an individualized basis, I have implemented Token Economy behavior plans.  Students who demonstrate a need for a Tier II or Tier III behavior plan are often placed on a behavior chart, in which tokens are counted and can later be traded in for backup reinforcers.  The Token Economy for individuals includes: a set of rules, token reinforcers, backup reinforcers, and a “store” at which backup reinforcers can be “purchased” (Ormrod, 98). 

            In general, these three different scenarios of instrumental conditioning are purposeful for their given audiences.

Motivation, Emotion, and Learning

          Theory to Practice: Module 1
          Motivation, or “an internal state that arouses us to action, pushes us in particular directions, and keeps us engaged in certain activities” is the drive that controls students’ learning (Ormrod, 426).  It plays a role in whether or not, how, and how much a student will learn, in conjunction with cognitive functions.  There are many contributing factors to how much motivation a student has to learn, including whether or not their basic needs are met, value and interest in a subject, and other factors that teachers can control.  As a teacher, it is my goal to enhance intrinsic motivation in my students utilizing a variety of tools, techniques, and individualized or small group instruction in my classroom. 
          In my classroom, the instructional strategies that I currently implement to meet learners’ motivational needs include: opportunities for choice, intermediate difficulty tasks, peer/instructor modeling, authentic tasks, and private assessment (Artino, 2012).  When the opportunity for choice is appropriate, I will offer it.  For example, during a science unit on Habitats, in which students study and present information on one habitat, I allow them to choose which habitat.  Also, students currently work on an iPad one morning per week on an Application of choice.  In both examples, I am able to control the overall choices, but I am able to offer student choice at the same time.  This also makes the experience of more interest and value to the students, which in turn leads to students obtaining more knowledge.  “To some extent, interest and knowledge seem to  perpetuate each other: personal interest in a topic fuels a quest to learn more about a topic, and the increasing knowledge that one gains may in turn promote greater interest” (Ormrod, 464). 
          In general, I find that our curriculum tasks are designed at an intermediate level of difficulty with authentic tasks built in.  Otherwise, they are differentiated to challenge students at their own level.  Our math program, Trailblazers, has tasks designed that gradually become more difficult.  I foresee student expectations continuing to become more challenging and authentic as we continue to align curriculum with the Common Core Standards.  As we complete a math lesson or unit, I will have students complete an authentic task or we will have a discussion about how the math skills can be used in the real-world.  This also relates to the motivational strategy of explaining value or relevance.
          Next, I continuously provide instructor modeling; for example, while doing a read-aloud during a reader’s workshop minilesson, I will model how to “think while reading.”  I use peer modeling for behavior reinforcement.  Lastly, I generally administer private assessments, whether a student is conferencing with me about a book to check for understanding, completing a final assessment on a unit of study, or taking a district-wide computer-based assessment.  Motivation continues to be a driving factor in student learning and it is important to continue to implement motivational factors in which I can control. 

First Post!

Welcome to my blog!  I am a third grade classroom teacher.  Here, I will share my experiences in my co-taught elementary school classroom.  I will share ideas about learning theories and their potential implications on my students' learning.  I look forward to also sharing the ways in which I integrate technology into my classroom to enhance learning.